Macrocurrent and Microcurrent Electrostimulation in Sport

 

Mel C Siff  PhD

 

 (Note:  This article drew extensively on material from the textbook, Siff MC & Verkhoshansky YV Supertraining  1999.  Anyone requiring further information on this topic should consult Chapter 4 of this book.)

 

The use of electric current on the human body largely has been restricted to use by physiotherapists to facilitate the healing of  musculoskeletal injuries and control pain.  It is fairly arbitrarily applied in two broad categories:

 

  Macrocurrent Stimulation  (currents over about 1 milliamp)

  Microcurrent Stimulation  (currents below about 1 milliamp)

 

The former usually refers to Faradic, Interferential, Galvanic and TENS (Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation)  devices, whereas the latter refers to specialised microcurrent devices for application either to the musculoskeletal system or as a non-invasive form of electroacupuncture via the acupuncture points of the body or the auricular points of the ears.  The differences between these applications will be discussed later in this article.

 

The concept of electrostimulation for physical conditioning is not new, and for years has been used by physical therapists in clinical applications such as muscle rehabilitation, relief of muscular spasm, reduction of swelling and pain control. Its possible value in sports training is still considered controversial.  In strength conditioning, the potential applications of electrostimulation fall into the following broad categories:

 

  Imposition of local physical stress to stimulate supercompensation

  Local restoration after exercise or injury

  General central nervous and endocrine restoration after exercise or injury

  Neuromuscular stimulation for pain control or movement patterning

 

Electrostimulation usually involves feeding the muscles low current electrical impulses via moistened electrode pads placed firmly on the skin. The effectiveness, comfort and depth of excitation depends on factors such as pulse shape, frequency, duration, intensity and modula­tion pattern. The resulting number of possible stimulation combinations immediately empha­sizes how difficult it is to determine the optimum balance of variables and compare the results of different researchers.

 

The typical clinical machine supplies pulsating direct (galvanic) and/or alternating (faradic) current in the form of brief pulses. The frequency of faradic current is most commonly chosen in the range of about 50-100 Hz, while pulse duration (width) ranges from about 100 mi­croseconds to several hundred milliseconds. This brevity of pulse duration is important for minimising skin irritation and tissue damage. However, the duration at any particular intensity of faradic stimulation should not be too brief.  Although they may be suitable for decreasing pain, pulses that are too brief will supply insufficient energy to cause full, tetanic muscle contraction.  

Machines are designed to apply alternating currents directly at a preset or selected fre­quency (conventional faradism), or in the form of low frequency currents superimposed on a medium frequency (2000 to 5000 Hz) carrier wave. A variation of the latter method, using two pairs of electrodes each supplying medium frequency waves carrying low frequency waves dif­fering slightly in frequency, forms the basis of what is called interferential stimulation. A major advantage of using a higher frequency carrier wave is that impedance between the electrodes and skin is lowered, enhancing comfort and effectiveness.  

American interest in electrostimulation as a training adjunct was aroused in 1971, when Kots in Russia reported increases of more than 20% in muscle strength, speed and power pro­duced by several weeks of electrotraining. Unable to produce comparable results, the Canadians invited him to lecture at Concordia University in 1977.  Armed with the new infor­mation that Kots employed a sinusoidally modulated 2500 Hz current source applied in a se­quence of 10 seconds of contraction followed by 50 seconds of relaxation, they again tried to duplicate Russian claims.

 

Applications of Macrocurrent Stimulation

 

A literature review reveals the following major uses of macrocurrent stimulation in the realm of therapy.  A more detailed discussion or the citations are not quoted here, but appear in my review on this topic [Siff M C (1990)  Applications of electrostimulation in physical conditioning: a review  J of Appl Sports Science Res  4 (1) : 20-26 ], as well as in the textbook: Siff MC & Verkhoshansky YV (1999)  Supertraining, Ch 4.

 

  1.  Increase in muscle strength

  2.  Re-education of muscle action

  3.  Facilitation of muscle contraction in dysfunctional or unused muscle

  4.  Increase of muscular and general endurance

  5.  Increase in speed of muscle contraction

  6.  Increase in local blood supply

  7.  Provision of massage

  8.  Relief of pain

  9.  Reduction of muscle spasm

10.  Promotion of relaxation and recuperation

11.  Increase in range of movement

12.  Reduction of swelling

13.  Reduction of musculoskeletal  abnormalities

14.  Preferential recruitment of specific muscle groups

15.  Acute increase in strength

16.  Improvement in metabolic efficiency

 

The Emergence of Microcurrent Stimulation

 

Recent research and clinical experience have revealed that electric currents as much as 1000 times smaller than that of all the traditional physical therapy modalities can be far more success­ful than the latter in achieving many of the benefits outlined in the previous section.

 

Currents as low as 10 microamps (millionths of an amp) pulsating at between 0.1 to 400Hz are too weak to cause muscle contraction, block pain signals or cause local heating, yet their effectiveness and safety is often superior in many applications to that of faradism, interfer­entialism and conventional TENS (Matteson & Eberhardt, 1985).

 

The steps to satisfactorily modify the existing paradigm for ES may be sought in the re­search findings quoted earlier  in the section: 'Reasons for conflicting research'. There, it was learned that cellular and subcellular processes not involving cell discharge, propagated electrical impulses, or muscle contraction, appear to be involved with cellular growth and repair.

 

Some studies have produced findings which offer partial answers to the questions posed by microstimulation. For instance, work by Becker and others suggests that small, steady or slowly varying currents can cause sub-threshold modulation of the electric fields across nerve and glial cells, thereby directly regulating cell growth and communication (Becker, 1974; Becker & Marino, 1982). In this respect, some of Becker's applications included the accelera­tion of wound healing, partial regeneration of amphibian and rat limbs, and induction of narco­sis with transcranial currents. Nordenström maintains that these electric currents can stimulate the flow of ions along the blood vessels and through the cell membranes which constitute the body's closed electric circuits postulated by his theory (Nordenström, 1983).

 

Pilla (1974) has paid particular attention to electrochemical information transfer across cell membranes. The model in this case hypothesizes that the molecular structure of the cell mem­brane reflects its current genetic activity. Here, the function of a cell at any instant is determined by feedback between DNA in the cell nucleus and a macromolecule inducer liberated from the membrane by means of a protein (enzyme) regulator derived from messenger RNA activity within the cell. The activity of these membrane-bound proteins is strongly modulated by changes in the concentration of divalent ions (such as calcium Ca++) absorbed on the mem­brane. ES may elicit these ionic changes and thereby modify cell function.

 

 It has been shown that ES at 5Hz stimulates synthesis of DNA in chick cartilage cells and rat bone by as much as 27%, but not in chick skin fibroblasts or rat spleen lymphocytes (Rodan et al, 1978). Not only does the effect of ES appear to be tissue-specific, but the increase in DNA synthesis occurs 4-6 hours after 15 minutes of ES. The process of membrane depolarisa­tion carried by sodium ions seems to be followed by an increase in intracellular Ca++ concen­tration, thereby triggering DNA synthesis in cells susceptible to the particular stimulus. Further work by Pilla (1981) has confirmed the existence of cellular 'windows' which open most ef­fectively to certain frequencies, pulse widths and pulse amplitudes. To attune the ES signal to these parameters, monitoring of tissue impedances is preferable, a system employed by so-called 'Intelligent TENS' devices.

 

In addition, Cheng et al (1982) have shown that stimulation with currents from 50-1000 microamps can increase tissue ATP concentrations in rats by 300-500%, and enhances amino acid transport through the cell membrane and consequent protein synthesis by as much as 40%. Interestingly, the same study reported that increasing the current above only one milliamp was sufficient to depress tissue ATP and protein synthesis - and traditional ES most commonly applies cur­rents exceeding 20 milliamps, at which stage this depression being nearly 50%.

 

An Integrated Theory of Electrostimulation

 

Therefore, it appears as if macrocurrent stimulation (MACS - currents exceeding one milliamp) acts as a physiological stressor, which in the short term causes the typical alarm re­sponse described by Selye (1975). This is supported by the work of Eriksson et al (1981), who found that the acute effects of traditional ES are similar to those found for intense volun­tary exercise. Furthermore, Gambke et al (1985) have found in animal studies that long-term MACS causes some muscle fibres to degenerate and be replaced by newly formed fibres from satellite cell proliferation. This fibre necrosis occurs a few days after application of ES and seems to affect mainly the FT fibres. The fact that the various muscle fibres do not transform at the same time may be due to different thresholds of each fibre to the stimulus that elicits the transformation. Possibly, the earlier changes might induce subsequent ones.

 

Thus, if Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome model is applied to MACS-type stimulation, the body would have to draw on its superficial adaptation energy stores and adapt to the ES-imposed stress by increasing strength or endurance, or by initiating transformation of muscle fibre types. If the ES is too intense, too prolonged or inappropriately used to augment a weight training programme, adaptation might not occur or it might increase the proportion of slow twitch fibres and thereby reduce strength. This could explain some of the negative re­search findings discussed earlier.

 

Furthermore, excessively demanding MACS conceivably might cause the body to draw on its deep adaptation energy and lead to permanent tissue damage. Consequently, any athlete who may derive definite performance benefits from MACS should not assume that increased dosage will lead to further improvement. The contrary may well prove to be true.

 

Microcurrent stimulation (MICS - currents below one milliamp), on the other hand, would not act as a stressor. Instead, the evidence implies that it elicits biochemical changes associated with enhanced adaptation, growth and repair. Since MICS appears to oper­ate more on the basis of resonant attunement of the stimulus to cellular and subcellular pro­cesses, the specific therapeutic effects are determined by how efficiently the stimulation parame­ters match the electrical characteristic of the different cells, in particular, their impedance at dif­ferent frequencies.  MICS may be applied in several ways to facilitate restoration:

 

  locally over specific soft tissues

  transcranially via electrodes on the earlobes or on sites on the surface of the skull

  at acupuncture points on the body, hands or ears.

 

It is generally entirely safe to apply MICS anywhere on the body, because the current and en­ergy transmitted is too low to produce any thermal or electrolytic effects on vital tissues.  Under no circumstances should MACS be applied across the brain, as it can cause serious harm.  It is generally not advisable to apply any form of ES to epileptics, pregnant women, cardiac patients or persons with heart pacemakers.  

 

The Validity of Microcurrent Application?

 

There has been considerable debate about the value of microcurrent (small electrical currents of less than 1 ampere) in physical therapy, with its supporters claiming consistently good results and its detractors claiming that any benefits are probably due to a placebo effect.  Some therapists have stated that there is scant evidence of any research and practical evidence of the value of microcurrent, so, for their interest and that of others conducting research into microcurrent therapy, I have compiled a lengthy, but incomplete, list of English language references that relate to the theoretical foundations and clinical applications of microcurrent.

 

My own interest in this field was piqued while I was gathering research information for my M.Sc into the mechanisms underlying the electroencephalogram (EEG) in brain research.  While browsing in the old science library  located in the physics building at the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa during 1971, I encountered a few fascinating texts: one edited by Barnothy (1969) and another by Presman (1970), as well as several articles by Robert Becker, with whom I later had periodic contact over the years (these are all referenced below).

 

Microcurrent References

 

Aaron RK, Ciombor, D & Jolly G  Stimulation of endochondral ossification by low-energy pulsing electromagnetic fields. J. Bone Mineral Res. 4:227-233; 1989.

Adey, RW.  ELF magnetic fields and promotion of cancer: experimental studies  In: B. Norden & C. Ramel  (eds.) Interaction Mechanisms of low-level  Electromagnetic Fields in Living Systems  1992: 23-46. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Adey, RW.  Electromagnetics in Biology and Medicine  In: H. Matsumoto (ed)  Modern Radio Science 1993: 177-245. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Adey, RW. Signal functions of brain electrical rhythms and their modulation by external electromagnetic fields. In: E. Basar and T. Bullock (eds) Induced Rhythms of the Brain  Birkauser, Boston, 1991: 323-351.

Adey, RW. Some fundamental aspects of biological effects of extremely low frequency (ELF). In: Grandolfo, M; Michaelson, S (eds.) Biological effects and dosimetry of Ionizing Electromagnetic Fields. New York: Plenum Publishing; 1983:561-580.

Anderson, JC. & Eriksson, C. Piezoelectric properties of dry and wet bone. Nature 227:491--492; 1970.

Auerbach, GD.; Marx, SJ & Spiegel, AM. Parathyroid hormone, calcitonin and the calciferols. In: Wilson, JD & Foster, WD. (eds.) Williams' Textbook of Endocrinology. 7th ed. New York: Saunders; 1985:1137-1217.

Barnothy MF (ed) Biological Effects of Magnetic Fields  Plenum Press  1969

Bassett CA Pulsing electromagnetic fields: A new approach to surgical problems. In: Buchwals H, Varco RL. Metabolic Surgery New York: Gune & Stratonn, 1982b:255-366.

Bassett CA Pulsing electromagnetic fields: A new method to modify cell behavior in calcified and noncalcified tissues. Calsif Tiss Int 1982; 34:1-8.

Bassett CA. Biologic significance of piezoelectricity. Calc Tiss Res 1968;1:252-72.

Bassett CA & Becker RO. Generation of electric potentials by bone in response to mechanical stress. Science 1962;137:1063-4

Bassett CA, Pawluck R & Becker RO. Effects of electric current on bone in vivo. Nature 1964;204:652-54.

Bassett CAL, Pawluk RJ, Pilla A. Acceleration of fracture repair by electromagnetic field. A surgically non-invasive method. Ann NY Acad Sci  1974;238:242-62

Bassett, CA.  Biomedical implications of pulsing electromagnetic fields. Surg. Rounds 1983:22-31; 1983.

Bassett, CA Pulsing electromagnetic fields: A new method to modify cell behavior in calcified and noncalcified tissues. Calc. Tiss. Res. 34:1-8; 1982.

Bassett, CA. & Becker, RO. Generation of electric potentials in bone in response to mechanical stress. Science 137:1063-1064; 1962.

Bassett, CA & Hermann, I. The effect of electrostatic fields on macromolecular synthesis by fibroblasts in vitro. J. Cell Biol. 39:9a; 1968.

Bassett, CA.; Mitchell, S & Gaston, S. R. Pulsing electromagnetic field treatment in ununited fractures and failed arthrodeses. JAMA 247:623-628; 1982.

Bassett, CA; Pawluk, R.; Becker, RO. Effect of electric currents on bone in vivo. Nature 204:652-654; 1964.

Bassett, CA; Pawluk, R.J.; Pilla, AA. Acceleration of fracture repair by electromagnetic fields. A surgically non-invasive method. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. 238:242-262; 1974.

Bassett, CA; Pilla, AA.; Pawluk, RJ. A non-operative salvage of surgically-resistant pseudarthroses and non-unions by pulsing electromagnetic fields. Clin. Orthop & Rel. Res. 124: 128-143; 1977.

Battocletti JH  Electromagnetism, Man and the Environment  Paul Elek, London  1976

Becker RO  The basic biological data transmission and control system influenced by electrical forces Ann. N Y Acad. Sci.  1974, 238: 236-241

Becker, RO. The significance of bioelectric potentials. Bioelectrochem. Bioenerget. 1:187-199; 1978.

Becker, RO  Cross Currents: The Promise of Electromedicine and the Perils of Electropollution  New York: Putnam.  1990

Beeson DC, Johnston LE Jr, Wisotzky J. Effect of constant currents on orthodontic tooth movement in the cat. J Dent Res 1975;54:251-4.

Berridge, M. The molecular basis of communication within the cell. Sci. Am. 253:142-150; 1985.

Bjork A. Prediction of mandibular growth rotation. Am J Orthod 1969; 55:585-99.

Bjork A. Variations in the growth pattern of the human mandible: longitudinal radiographic study by the implant method. J Dent Res  1963;42:400-411.

Black J. Tissue response to exogenous electromagnetic signals. Orthop Clin N Amer 1984;15:15-31.

Borgens, RB. Endogenous ionic currents traverse intact and damaged bone. Science 225:478--482; 1984.

Bourguignon, Gerard J.; Wenche, J & Bourguigon Lilly W.  Electric stimulation of  fibroblasts causes an increase in calcium influx and the exposure of additional insulin receptors.  J of Cellular Physiol 1989; 140:379-385.

Brighton CT, Black J & Pollack SR. Electrical properties of Bone and Cartilage: Experimental Effects and Clinical Applications. Grune & Stratton Inc. New York NY 1979.

Brighton CT, Heppenstall RB. Oxygen tension in bones of the epiphyseal plate, the metaphysis, and diaphysis. An in vitro and in vivo study in rats and rabbits. J Bone Joint Surg 1971; 53A:718-729.

Brighton CT, Hunt RM. Ultrastructure of electrically induced osteogenesis in the rabbit medullary canal. J Orthop Res 1986;4:27-36.

Brighton CT, Shaman P, Heppenstall R, Esterhai J, Pollack S, Friedenberg Z. Tibial nonunion treated with direct current, capacitive coupling, or bone graft. Clin Orthop 1995;321:223-34.

Brighton CT. Bioelectric effects on bone and cartilage. Clin Orthop & Rel Res 1977;124:2-4.

Brighton, CT. Bone reaction to varying amounts of direct current. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 131:894; 1970.

Brighton, CT (ed). Electrical properties of Bone and Cartilage. New York: Plenum Press; 1979:519-545.

Brighton, CT.; Black, J.; Friedenberg, Z.; Esterhai, J; Day, L; Cormoily, J. A multicenter study of the treatment of non-union fractures with constant direct current. J. Bone & Joint Surg. 63A:2-12; 1981.

Brighton, CT & Friedenberg, ZB Electrical stimulation and oxygen tension. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. 238:314-320; 1974.

Brighton, CT; Friedenberg, ZB & Black, J. Evaluation of the use of constant direct current in the treatment of non-union. In:  Brighton, CT (ed.) Electrical properties of Bone and Cartilage. New York: Plenum Press; 1979:519-545.

Brighton, CT.; Unger, A.; Starebough, J. In vitro growth of bovine articular cartilage chondrocytes in various capacitatively coupled electrical fields. J. Orthop. Res. 2:15-22; 1984.

Byl N, McKenzie A, West J, Whitney J, Hunt T, Holp H & Scheuenstuhl H. Pulsed microamperage stimulation: a controlled study of healing of surgically induced wounds in Yucatan pigs. Phys Ther 1994;74:201-13.

Cain, CD & Luben, R.  Pulsed EMF effects on PTH stimulated cAMP accumulation and bone resorption in mouse calvariae. In: Anderson, L; Kelman, B; Weigel, R (eds)  Interaction of Biological systems with ELF. Richland, WA: Battelle Laboratories Press; Conference Publication No. 24; 1987, 269-278.

Cain, CD. Pulsed Electromagnetic Field modifications on Bone Metabolism in vitro: Influences on cyclic AMP ornithine decarboxylase and Bone Resorption.  Riverside University of California, Dept of Biochemistry; Ph.D. dissertation.  1986

Cain, CD.; Adey, WR & Luben, RA. Evidence that. puIsed electromagnetic fields inhibit coupling of adenylate cyel  by parathyroid hormone in bone cells. J. Bone Min. Res.I 437-441; 1987.

Cain, CD.; Luben, R. A. Pulsed EMF effects on PTH stimulated cAMP accumulation and bone resorption in mouse calvariae. In: Anderson, L; Kelman, B; Weigel, R (eds) Interaction of Biological Systems with ELF. Richland, WA: Battelle Laboratories Press; Conference Publication No. 24; 1987, 269-278.

Canalis, E. Regulation of bone remodeling. In: M. J. Fayus (ed)  Primer on metabolic bone diseases. Kelseyville, CA: Amer Society for Bone & Mineral Research; 1990:23-25.

Carley & Wainapel. Electrotherapy for acceleration of wound healing: low intensity direct current. Arch of Physical Med & Rehab  July 1985; vol. 66.

Chakkalakal DA, Lipello L, Shindell RL, Connoly JF. Electrophysiology of direct current stimulation of fracture healing in canine radius. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1990;37,11:1048-58.

Cheng, N, The effect of Electric Currents on ATP Generation, Protein Synthesis, And Membrane Transport in Rat Skin.  Clin. Orthopedics  & Rel Res  1982;  171:  264-272

Cheng, N., The effects of electric currents on ATP Generation, Protein Synthesis, and membrane transport in rat skin. Orth Surg. 1982

Childers KR. The Effects of Direct Electric Current on Condylar and Mandibular Growth in the Rabbit. Masters Thesis, University of Tennessee, 1990.

Clinical Applications of Electric Current remain largely unexplored   J Am Med Assoc  1974, 227: 129-130

Cochran, GV; Pawluk, RJ.; Bassett, CA.  Electrum chanical characteristics of bone under physiologic moist conditions. Clin. Orthop & Rel. Res. 58:250-269; 1968.

Colacicco, G.; Pilla, AA. Chemical, physical and biological correlations in the Ca-uptake by embryonal chick tibia in vitro.  Biochem. & Bioenerget. 10:119-131; 1983.

Compere, CL. Electromagnetic fields and bones. JAMA 247: 669; 1982.

Cone, CD. Unified theory on the basic mechanism of normal mitotic control and oncogenesis. J. Theor. Biol. 30:151-181; 1971.

Cook, I & Bassett, CA Effects of tissue type and orientation of electromagnetically induced voltages. J. Bone Joint Surg. 7:361-366; 1983.

Creekmoore TD & Radney L Frankel appliance therapy: orthopedic or orthodontic? Am J Orthod 1983;83:89-108.

Czech, M. Signal transmission by the insulin-like growth factors. Cell 59:235-238; 1989.

Darnell, J.; Lodish, H & Baltimore, D. Cell-to-cell Signaling. Hormones and Receptors. Molecular Cell Biology. 2nd  ed. New York: W. H. Freeman; 1990:709-763.

Davidovitch Z, Finkelson M, Steigman S, Shanfield J, Montgomery P & Korostoff E. Electric currents, bone remodeling, and orthodontic tooth movement. The effect of electric currents on periodontal cyclic nucleotides. AM J Orthod 1980a;77:14-32.

Davitovitch Z, Finkelson M, Steigman S, Shanfield J, Montgomery P & Korostaff E. Electric currents, bone remodeling, and orthodontic tooth movement. II Increase in the rate of tooth movement and periodontal cyclic nucleotide by combined force and electric currents.  AM J Orthod 1980b;77:33-47.

Davitovitch Z & Shanfield JL. Cyclic AMP levels in alveolar bone of orthodontically treated cats. Arch Oral Biol 1975;20:567-74.

De Loecker W &  Stas. ML Effect or cortisol treatment on free amino acid levels in rats. J. Endocrinol. 59:57. 1973.

Dealler, S. F. Electrical phenomena associated with bones and fractures and the therapeutic use of electricity in fracture healing. J. Meal. Engin. Technol. 5:73-79; 1981.

Dietrich, J. W.; Canalis, E. M.; Maina, D. M. & Raisz, L. Hormonal control of bone collagen synthesis in vitro: Effects of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin.  Endocrinology 98:943-949; 1976.

DoMman, HG.; Caron, M. G.; Lefkowitz, R. J. A family of receptors coupled to guanine nucleotide regulatory proteins. Biochem. 26:2657-2664; 1987.

Electric Current as a Bone Healer  Med World News  1975, 16(2): 84

Electronic Medical Digest:  San Francisco: Electronic Medical Foundation; 1944-1955

Epstein, S. Bone-derived proteins. Trends Endocr. Metab. 1:9-13; 1990.

Eriksson. C.  Streaming potentials and other water-dependent effects in mlneralized tissues. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 238:321, 1974.

Eriksson. C  Electrical properties of bone. In Bourne GH (ed.): Biochemistry and Physiology of Bone. vol. 4. New York. Academic Press, 1976, pp. 329-384.

Farndale RW, Maroudas A & Marsland T. Effects of low-amplitude pulsed magnetic fields on cellular ion transport. Bioelectromagnetics 1987;8,2:119-34.

Farndale RW & Murray JC. Pulsed electromagnetic fields promote collagen production in bone marrow fibroblasts via athermal mechanisms. Calcif Tissue Int 1985;37:178-82.

Ferrier J, Ross SM, Kanehisa J, Aubin JE. Osteoclasts and osteoblasts migrate in opposite directions in response to a contact electrical field. J Cell Physiol 1986;129:283-8.

Firzsimmons RJ, Strong D, Mohan S & Baylink D. Low-amplitude, low-frequency electric field-stimulated bone cell proliferation may in part be mediated by increased IGF-II release. J Cell Physiol 1992;150,1:84-9.

Fitton-Jackson, S & Bassett, C. A. The response of skeletal tissues to pulsed magnetic fields. In: Richards, R. J.; Rajah K. T. (eds)  Use of Tissue Culture in Medical Research. Oxford Pergamon Press; 1980:21-46.

Florey, W & Neuhaus, O Induced transport of amino acids in rat liver after whole body irradiation. Radial. Res. 68:138, 1976.

Friedenberg ZB, Andrews ET, Smolenski BI, Pearl BW, Brighton CT. Bone reaction to varying amounts of direct current. Surg Gynec Obstet 1970;131:894-9.

Friedenberg ZB, Brighton CT. Bioelectric potentials in bone. J Bone Joint Surg 1966;48-A:915-23.

Friedenberg ZB, Brighton CT. Electric fracture healing. Ann NY Acad Sci 1974;238:564-74.

Friedenberg ZB, Dyer RH, Brighton CT. Electro-osteograms of long bones of immature rabbits. J Dent Res 1971a;50:635-9

Friedenberg ZB, Harlow MC, Brighton CT. Healing on nonunion of the medial malleolus by means of direct current: a case report. J Trauma 1971b; 11:883-5

Friedenberg ZB & Kohanim M. Effect of direct current on bone. Surg Gynec Obstet 1968;127:97.

Friedenberg ZB, Roberts PG Jr., Dedizian W, Brighton CT. Stimulation of fracture healing by direct current in the rabbit fibula. J Bone Joint Surg 1971c; 53A:1400-8.

Friedenberg, ZB &  Brighton, CT. Bioelectric potentials in bone. J. Bone Joint Surg. 48A:915-923; 1966.

Friedenberg, ZB & Brighton, CT. Bioelectricity and fracture healing. Plast. Reconst. Surg. 68:435-443; 1981.

Friedenberg, ZB.; Harlow, MC & Brighton, C  Healing of non-union of the medial malleolus by means of direct current: A case report. J. Trauma 11:883-885; 1971a.

Friedenberg, ZB.; Harlow, MC.; Heppenstali, R. B.; Brighton, C. T. The cellular origin of bioelectric potentials in bone. Calc. Tiss. Res. 13:53; 1973.

Friedenberg, ZB.; Roberts, P. G.; Didizian, N.H.; Brighton, C. T. Stimulation of fracture healing by direct current in the rabbit fibula. J. Bone Joint Surg. 53A: 1400-1408; 1971b.

Friedenberg, ZB.; Zemsky, L. M.; Pollis, R. P.; Brighton, C. T. The response of non-traumatized bone to direct current. J. Bone Joint Surg. 56A: 1023-1040; 1974.

Fukada E, Lang S, Mascarenhas S, Pilla A, Shamos M. The electrophysical and electrochemical properties of living tissue. Ann NY Acad Sci 1974; 238:228-36.

Fukada E, Yasuda I. On the piezoelectric effect on bone. J Phys Soc Japan 1957;12:1158-62.

Fukada, E Piezoelectric properties of organic polymers. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 238:7. 1974.

Fukuda, E & Yasuda, I. On the piezoelectric effect of bone. J. Physiol. Soc. Japan 10:1158-1162; 1957.

Gensler. W Bioelectric potentials and their relation to growth in higher plants. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 238:280. 1974.

Gerling JA, Sinclair P, Roa R  The effect of pulsating electromagnetic fields on condylar growth in guinea pigs. Am J Orthod 1985; 87:211-23.

Goh JC, Bose K, Kang YK, Nugroho B. Effects of electrical stimulation on the bimechanical properties of fracture healing in rabbits. Clin Orthop 1988;233:268-73.

Goodman, R & Henderson, A Exposure of salivary glands to low-frequency electromagnetic fields alters polypeptide synthesis. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85:3928-3932; 1988.

Goodman, R & Henderson, A. S. Sine waves enhance cellular transcription. Bioelectromagnetics 7:23-29; 1986.

Graber TM.  Extrinsic control factors influencing craniofacial growth. In McNamara JA (ed) Control Mechanisms in Craniofacial Growth, 1975: 75-100.

Hamblen, DL. Scientific basis of present day fracture treatment. J. Roy. Col. Surg. of Ed. 24:340-351; 1979.

Harrington, DB., Meyer. R & Klein, RM.: Effects of small amounts of electric current at Ihe cellular level. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 238:300, 1974.

Harrington, DB.. and Becker. RO.: Electrical stimulation of RNA and protein synthesis in the frog erylhrocyte. Exp. Cell Res. 76: 95. 1973.

Hartshorne. On the causes and treatment of pseudoarthroses and especially that form of it sometimes called supernumary joint. Am. J. Med. Sci. 1:143; 1840.

Harvold EP, Vargervik K. Morphogenetic response to activator treatment. Am J Orthod 1971;60:478-90.

Hass DW. Stimulation of condylar growth in the cat with pulsating electromagnetic currents. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 1995;108:599-606.

Hassler, CR.; Rykicki, E; Diegle, R & Clark, L. Studies of enhanced bone healing via electrical stimuli. Clin. Orthop. Rel. Res. 124:9-19; 1977.

Hasting GW, El Messiery MA, Rakowski S. Mechanoelectrical properties of bone. Biomaterials 1981;2:225-33.

Heffeman, M. (1996). Comparative effects of microcurrent stimulation on EEG spectrum and correlation dimension. Integrative Physiology &  Behavioral Science. 31 (3):202-209.

Heffeman, M. (1996b). Measurement of electromagnetic fields in the healing response. Epress, pp 1-6.

Heffernan, M. (1995). The effect of a single cranial electrotherapy stimulation on multiple stress measures. The Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients. 147:60-64.

Heffernan, M.  Effects of Variable Microcurrent on EEG Spectra and Pain Control, (1996)  ISSSEEM.

Henry, H. L. & Norman, A. Vitamin D: Metabolism and mechanism of action. In: Favus, M. J (ed.) Primer on Metabolic Bone Disease. Kelseyville, CA: Amer Society of Bone and Mineral Research; 1990:47-52.

Hubel, K. A.: The effects of electrical field stimulation and tetrodotoxin on ion transport by isolated rabbit ileum. J. Clin. Invest. 62:1039. 1977.

Jacobs JD, Norton LA. Electrical stimulation of osteogenesis in perioodontal defects. Clin Orthop & Rel Res 1977;124:41-52.

Jagendorf. A. T & Uribe. E.: ATP formation caused by acid-base transition of spinach chloroplasts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 55:170. 1966.

Jahn, T. L. A possible mechanism for the effect of electrical potential on apatite formation in bone. Clin. Orthop &. Rel. Res. 56:261-273; 1968.

Jorgensen TE. The effects of electric current on the healing time of crural fractures. Acta Orthop Scand 1972;43:421-37.

Kantommaa T. The effect of increased oxygen tension on the growth of the mandibular condyle. Acta Odontol Scand 1986;44:307-12.

Karpf, DB.; Bambino, T; Arnaud, C; Nissenson, R. Molecular determinants of parathyroid hormone receptor function. In: Cohn, DV; Glorieux, F; Martin, T (eds) Calcium Regulation and Bone Metabolism, vol. 10. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1990:15-23. "·

Kaziro Y The role of guanosine-5'-triphosphate in polypeptide chain elongation. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 505:95. 1978.

Keller. FB & Zamecnik. PD The effects of guanosine diphosphate and triphosphate on the incorporation of labeled amino acids into proteins. J. Biol. Chem. 221:45, 1956.

Killiany DM & Johnston LE. The effect of surgical rotation on the subsequent pattern of condylar growth. In: Dixon AD, Sarnat B & Alan R Liss (eds) Normal and Abnormal Bone Growth. Basic and Clinical Research., New York: 439-48.

Kohavi D, Pollack S, Brighton C  Short-term effect of guided bone regeneration and electrical stimulation on bone growth in a surgically modelled resorbed dog mandibular ridge. Biomater Artif Cells Immobilization Biotechnol 1992;20:131-8.

Kopczyck RA, Norton LA, Kohn MW. Bioelectric regeneration of bone in periodontal defects. J Dent Res 1975; 54:914-19.

Korostoff. E.: Stress generated potentials in bone: Relationship to plezoelectricity of collagen. J. Biomech. 10:41. 1977.

Koski K, Lahdemaki P. Adaptation of the mandible in children with adenoids. Am J Orthod 1975;68:660-65.

Koski KK Cranial growth centers, facts or fallacies? Am J Orthod 1968;54:566-83.

Krukowski, M.; Simmons, D. J.; Summerfield, A.; Osdoby, P. Charged beads: Generation of bone and giant cells. J. Bone Min. Res. 2:165-171; 1988.

Lanyon. L. E.. and Hartman. W.: Strain related electrical potentials recorded in vitro and in viro. Calcif. Tissue Res. 22:315. 1977.

Lavine LS, Lustrin I, Shamos MH & Moss M. The influence of electric current on bone regeneration in vivo. Acta Orthop Scan 1971:42:305-314.

Lavine LS, Lustrin I, Shamos M, Rinolds R & Liboff A. Electrical enhancement of bone healing Science 1972;75:1118-21.

Lavine. L. S.. Lustfin, I & Shamos. M. H.: Treat C~cal Onnopaeocs and related Rescaeca men: of congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia with direct current. Clin. Orthop. 124:69. 1977.

Levy, D. D & Rubin, B. Inducing bone growth in vivo by pulse stimulation. Clin. Orthop & Rel. Res. 88:218-222; 1972.

Liboff, AR.; Williams, T.; Strong, D; Wistar, R. Time-varying magnetic fields: Effect on DNA synthesis. Science 223:818-820; 1984.

Liss, S. (1996). Neurochemical profiles following electrocranial stimulation. Presented at the Hans Selye Eighth International Conference on Stress. Montreux, Switzerland.

Llaurado JG, Sances A Jr & Battocletti J (eds)  Biologic and Clinical Effects of Low Frequency Magnetic and Eelectric Fields  CC Thomas, Springfield, Ill  1974

Lubar, J., et al. (1995). EEG spectrum in neurofeedback treatment of attention deficit disorder. J of Psycho-educational Assessment. Special issue, Dec.

Luben, RA. Comparison of electromagnetic effects on para-thyroid hormone receptors and beta-adrenergic receptors in bone cells. J. Cell Biol. 109:172a; 1989.

Luben, RA & Cain, C. Use of hormone receptor activities to investigate the membrane effects of low energy electromagnetic fields. In: Adey, WR.; Lawrence, AF (eds)  Nonlinear Electrodynamics in Biological Systems. New York: Plenum Press; 1984:23-34.

Luben, RA.; Cain, CD.; Chen, MC.; Rosen, D & Adey, WR. Inhibition of parathyroid hormone actions on bone cells in culture by induced low energy electromagnetic fields. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 79:4180-4184; 1982.

Luben, RA.; Cobh, D. V. Effects of parathormone and ealci-tonin on citrate and hyaluronate metabolism in cultured bone. Endocrinology 98:413-419; 1976.

Luben, RA.; Huynh, D.; Weinshank, R. L.; Smith, L. E. Molecular cloning of candidate sequences for the mouse osteo-blast parathyroid hormone receptor. In: Cohn, DV; Glorieux, F; Martin, T(eds.) Calcium Regulation and Bone Metabolism, vol. 10. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1990:39-44.

Luben, RA.; Wong, G. L.; Cohn, D. V. Biochemical characterization with parathormone and caicitonin ofisolated bone cells: Provisional identification of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Endocrinology 99:526-534; 1976. 

Lundin A & Thore A. Analytical information obtainable by evaluation of the tlme course of firefly biolumincscence in the assay of ATP. Anal. Biochem. 66:47. 1975.

Luben, RA. (1991). Effects of low-energy electromagnetic fields (pulsed and dc) on membrane signal transduction processes in biological systems. Health Physics. 61(1): 15-28.

Luben, RA., Effects of low-energy electromagnetic fields(pulsed and dc)on membrane signal transduction processes in biological  systems.(1991) Health Physics, Vol 61, No.1, pgs 15-28.

Lundin A & Thore A Analytical information obtainable by evaluation of the tlme course of firefly biolumincscence in the assay of ATP. Anal. Biochem. 66:47. 1975.

Manley Tehan, L, Microcurrent Therapy: Universal Treatment Techniques and Applications.  Corona, CA:  Manley & Associates;  1994

Marsland, TP. Biophysical Studies of Pulsed Electromagnetic Field Interaction with Biological Systems. London: Plenum Press; NATO ASI Series 97; 1985:547-595.

Martin, R. B & Gutman, W. The effect of electric fields on osteoporosis of disuse. Calc. Tiss. Res. 25:23-27; 1978.

Masureik C, Erikson C. Preliminary clinical evaluation of the effect of small electrical currents on the healing of jaw fractures. Clin Orthop & Rel Res 1977;124:84-91.

McClanahan, B. J.; Phillips, R. D. The influence of electric field exposure on bone growth and fracture repair in rats. Bioelectromagnetics 4:11-19; 1983.

McComb, RB; Bowers, GN Jr  & Posen, S. Alkaline Phosphatase. New York: Plenum Press; 1979.

McNamara JA Jr., Carlson DS. Quantitative analysis of temporomandibular joint adaptations to protrusive function.  Am J Orthod 1979;76:593-611.

Mercola, JM & Kirsch, D.  The Basis for Microcurrent Electrical Therapy in Conventional Medical Practice, J of Advancement in Medicine, 1995;8(2):  83-97

Mitchell. P  Chemiosmotic coupling in oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation. Biol. Rev. 41:445 1966.

Mitchell. P  Vectorial chemistry and the molecular mechanism of chemiosmotic coupling: Power transmission by proticity. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 4:400. 1976.

Morgareidge, KR  Chipman, MR, Microcurrent Therapy, Physical Therapy Today, Spring 1990:50-53

Nair, I.; Morgan, G & Florig, H. Biological effects of Power Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; Office of Technology Assessment, Document OTA-BP-E-53; 1989.

Nannmark U, Buch F & Albrektsson T. Influence of direct currents on bone vascular supply. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg  Hand Surg 1988; 22 (2) :113-5.

Nessler, J.P & Mass, D  Direct current electrical stimulation of tendon healing in vitro. Clinical Orthopedics 1985; 217:303.

Neuman, W; Ramp, W. The concept of a bone membrane: Source implication. In: Nichols, G; Wasserman, R  (eds.) Cellular Mechanisms for Calcium Transfer and Homeostasis. New York: Academic Press; 1971:197-199.

Nordenström BEW  Electric Man  Discover  April 1986: 1-11

Nordenström BEW  Biologically Closed Electric Circuits: Clinical, Experimental and Theoretical Evidence for an Additional Circulatory System  Nordic Medical Publications   Sweden  1983

Norton LA, Hanley K & Twrkeitcz J.  Bioelectric perturbations of bone. Angle Orthod 1984;54:73-87.

Norton LA, Rodan GA & Bourret LA. Epiphyseal cartilage cAMP changes produced by electrical and mechanical perturbations. Clin Orthop & Rel Res 1977;124:59-68.

Norton LA. Effects of a pulsed electromagnetic field on mixed chondroblastic tissue culture. Clin Orthop & Rel Res  1982;167:280-9.

Norton LA. In vivo bone growth in a controlled electric field. Ann NY Acad Sci 1975;238:466-77.

Norton, L. A.; Rodan, G. A. & Bourret, L  Epiphyseal cartilage cAMP changes produced by electrical and mechanical perturbations. Clin. Orthop & Rel. Res. 124:59-68; 1977.

O’Connor BT, Charlton H, Currey J, Kirby DR &Woods C. Effects of electric current on bone in vivo. Nature 1969;222:162-67.

O'Malley, B. The steroid hormone receptor superfamily: More excitement predicted for the future. Mol. Endocrinol. 4:363-369; 1990.

Otter J, Johnson GS, Pastan IH. Regulation of cell growth cyclic adenosine 3’, 5’ monophosphate: effect of the cell density and agents which alter growth on cAMP levels in fibroblasts. J Biol Chem 1972;247:7082.

Oxender. D. L & Christensen. H  Distinct mediating systems for the transport of neutral amino acids by the Ehrlich cell. J. Biol. Chem. 238:3686, 1963.

Petrovic A. Mechanism and regulation of condylar growth. Acta Morphol Neerl Scand 1972;10:25-34.

Pilla, A. &  Margules. G  Dynamic interfacial electrochemical phenomena at living cell membranes: Application to the toad urinary bladder membrane system. J. Electrochem. Soc. 124:1697, 1977.

Pilla, A. Electrochemical information transfer at cell surfaces and junctions - application to the study and manipulation of cell regulation. In: Keyzer, H. & Gutman, F (eds) Bioelectrochemistry. New York: Plenum Publishing; 1980:353-396.

Pinkard JS. The effects of Electric Current on Condylar Cartilage and Bone Growth. Master Thesis, Case Western Reserve University, 1984.

Presman AS  Electromagnetic Fields and Life  Translated by F Sinclair, edited by FE Brown Jr  Plenum Press  1970

Raisz, LG. Bone metabolism and calcium regulation. Metabolic Bone Dis. 1:1-48; 1977.

Rappaport, M. S.; Stern, P. H. Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin modify inositol phospholipid metabolism in fetal rat limb bones. J. Bone Min. Res. 1:173-179; 1986.

Rodan GA, Barret L, Harvey A & Mens T.  Cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP: Mediators of the mechanical effects on bone remodeling. Science 1975; 189:467-9.

Rodan GA, Bourret LA & Norton LA. DNA synthesis in cartilage cells is stimulated by oscillating electric fields. Science  1978;199:690-2.

Rodan, GA.; Bourret, L. A.; Norton, L. A. DNA synthesis in cartilage cells is stimulated by oscillating electric fields. Science 199:690--692; 1978.

Rodan, GA.; Martin, T. J. Role of osteoblasts in the hormonal regulation of bone resorption--a hypothesis. Calcif. Tiss. Intl. 33:349-351; 1981.

Rodan, S. B.; Wesolowski, G.; Rodan, G. A. Cional differences in prostaglandin synthesis among osteosarcoma cell lines. J. Bone Min. Res. 1:213-220; 1986.

Romero-Sierra I & Tanner. JA.: Biological effects of nonionizing radiation: An outline of fundamenlal laws. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 238:263, 1974.

Rowley, BA; McKenna, J & Wolcott, L; The use of Low Level Electric Current for the Enhancement of Tissue Healing.  ISA BM.  1974; 74322: 111-114

Rowley BA, McKenna, J; Chase, G & Wolcott, L The influence of electrical current on an infecting microorganism in wounds. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 238:543, 1974.

Sansen W & De Dijcker, F.: The four-point probe technique to measure bio-impedances. Electromyogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 16:509. 1976.

Savitz, D. A.; Calle, E. Leukemia and occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields: Review of epidemiological surveys. J. Med. 29:47-51; 1987.

Schlessinger, J. The epidermal growth factor receptor as a mul-tifunctional allosteric protein. Biochem. 27:3119-3123; 1986.

Schmukler, R.; Pilla, A. A. A transient impedance approach to nonfaradaic electrochemical kinetics at living cell membranes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 129:526-528; 1982.

Selye, H  The Stress of  Life.  New York:  Van Nostrand-Reinhold;  1975

Shafer DM, Rogerson K, Norton L, Bennett J. The effect of electrical perturbation on osseointegration of titanium dental implants: a preliminary study. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1995;53:1063-8.

Shamos MH. & Layine LS.: Piezoelectricity as a fundamental property of biological tissues. Nature 213:267, 1967.

Shapiro E, Roeber FW, Klempner LS. Orthodontic movement using pulsating force-induced piezoelectricity. Am J Orthod 1975;76:251-254.

Sibley, D. R.; Benovic, J; Caron, M; Lefkowitz, R. Phosphorylation of cell surface receptors: A mechanism for regulating signal transduction pathways. Endocrine Rev. 9: 38-56; 1988.

Spadaro JA, Albanese SA, Chase S. Bone formation near direct current electrodes with and without motion. J Orthop Res 1992;10,5:729-38.

Spafaro. J. A.: Electrically stimulated bone growth in animals and man. Review of the literature. Clin Orthop & Rel Res. 122:325, 1977.

Sparado JA & Becker RO. Function of implanted cathodes in elecrode-induced bone growth. Med Biol Eng Comput 1979;17:769-75.

Sparado JA. Electrically stimulated bone growth in animals and man. Clin Orthop & Rel Res 1977;122:325-32.

Stan. S, Muller, J;  Sansen. W. & Dewaele. P.: Effect of direct current on the healing of fractures. In Burney. F.. Herbst, E. & Hinsenkamp. M. (eds): Electric Stimulation of Bone Growth and Repair. Berlin. Heidelberg. New York, Springer-Verlag. 1978, pp. 47-53.

Stark TM, Sinclair PM. Effect of pulsed electromagnetic fields on orthodontic tooth movement. Am J Orthod 1987;91:91-103.

Starlanyl, D Fibromyalgia & Chronic Myofascial Pain Syndrome: A Survival Manual.  Oakland, CA:  New Harbinger Publications, Inc.; 1996

Stefan A, Sanses W, Milier JC. Experimental study on electrical impedance on bone and the effect of direct on the healing of fractures. Clin Orthop a Rel Res 1976;120:264-67.

Steiner M & Ramp WK. Electrical stimulation of bone and its applications for endosseous dental implantation. J Oral Implantol 1990;16:20-7.

Stryer, L & Bourne, HR . G proteins: A family of signal transducers. Ann. Rev. Cell Biol. 2:391-420; 1986.

Stutzman J,  Petrovic. Intrinsic regulation of the condylar cartilage growth rate. Europ J Orthod 1979;1:41-54.

Szago G, Illes T. Experimental stimulation of osteogenesis induced by bone matrix. Orthopedics 1991;14,1:63-7.

Tabrah, F.; Hoffmeier, M.; Gilbert, F.; Batkin, S.; Bassett, C. A. Bone density changes in osteoporosis-prone women exposed to pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs). J. Bone Min. Res. 5:437-442; 1990.

Tam, CS.; Heersche, J; Murray, T & Parsons, J. Parathyroid hormone stimulates the bone apposition rate independently of its resorptive action. Endocrinology 110:506-512; 1982.

Travell, JG & Simons, DG  Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction:The Trigger Point Manual, Vol. 1: The Upper Body.  Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins;  1983

United States Environmental Protection Agency. Evaluation of the potential carcinogenicity of Electromagnetic Fields. July 1991, Volume 61, Number I

Van Linborgh J. A new view on the control of the morphogenesis of the skull. Acta Morphol Neerl Scand 1970;8:143-60.

Vingerling PA, Van der Kuij P, De Groot K & Sillevis PAE. Electromagnetic reduction of resorption rete of extrxction wounds. In: Brighton CT, Black J, Pollack SR (eds)  Electrical Properties of Bone and Cartilage. New York: Grune & Straton, 1979:341-6.

Wahlstrom, O. Stimulation of fracture healing with electromagnetic fields of extremely low frequency. Clin. Orthop 186:293-298; 1984.

Watson, J. The electrical stimulation of bone healing. Proc. IEEE 67:1339-1351; 1979.

Weislander L, Lagerstrom L. The effect pf activator on Class II malocclusions. Am J Orthod 1979;75:20-26.

West, B.J. (1990). Fractal Physiology and Chaos in Medicine. World Scientific, New Jersey.

Witt. H. T.. Schlodder, E &  Graber. P  Membrane-bound ATP synthesis generated by an external electrical field. FEBS Left. 69:272, 1976.

Wolcott. L. E.. Wheeler, P, Hardwicke. H & RowIey. B Accelerated healing of skin ulcers by electrotherapy: Prelimlnary clinical results. South. Med. J. 62:795. 1969.

Wolff, J. Studies of Bone Transformation. Berlin: Publisher unknown; 1892.

Wu. K. T., Go, N.. Dennis, C.. Enquist, I. & Sawyer P. N.  Effects of Electric Currents and interfacial potentials on wound healing. J Surg. Res. 7:122. 1967.

Yamaguchi, D. T.; Hahn, T; Lida-Klein, A; Kleeman, C & Muallemm, S. Parathyroid hormone activated calciun channels in an osteoblast-like clonal osteosarcoma cell line. J. Biol. Chem. 262:7711-7718; 1987.

Yarden, Y.; Ullrich, A. Growth factor receptor tyrosine kinases Ann. Rev. Biochem. 57:443-478; 1988

Yasuda I. Electrical callus and callus formation by electret. Clin Orthop & Rel Res 1977;124:53-56.

Zengo AN, Bassett CA, Proutzos G, Pawluk R, Pilla A. In vivo effects of direct current in the mandible. J Dent Res 1976; 58:383-90.

 

Mel C Siff  PhD

Denver

mcsiff@aol.com

July 2000

_____________________________________________________________________

[Back to Index]